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Vores teorier og begrebsmodeller afgrænser den unikke viden og de særlige antagelser, der kendetegner ergoterapien. Desuden danner teorierne og begrebsmodellerne grundlaget for vores ergoterapeutiske praksis (Hammell, 2019). Hensigten med denne artikel er at understrege, at det er helt afgørende, at vi udfordrer det ergoterapeutiske områdes teoretiske grundlag og sætter spørgsmålstegn ved, om de teorier, der er toneangivende i professionen, er tilstrækkelige.
Det er relevant først at eksplicitere min position som hvid, heteroseksuel, klasseprivilegeret, endnu ikke funktionshæmmet, ciskønnet kvinde. (At være ciskønnet vil sige at identificere sig med sit biologiske køn). Jeg er bevidst om de materielle og aktivitetsmæssige fordele samt sociale privilegier, jeg har i kraft af min lyse hud og det forhold, at jeg er sund og rask. Og jeg erkender, at jeg ikke har gjort mig fortjent til disse fordele og privilegier. Endvidere anerkender jeg at være bærer af en verdensforståelse eller et perspektiv, der er afledt af min position, og som former min måde at tænke på. Et perspektiv, der nødvendigvis må være begrænset, partisk og ukomplet.
Teorier der er afledt af et minoritetsperspektiv
Ergoterapien har været domineret af teorier og praksismodeller fra det globale nord, og de udgår fra et minoritetsperspektiv med følgende elementer: hvid race, eurocentrisme, et jødisk-kristent værdigrundlag, urban middelklasse, heteronormativitet og ableisme (Hammell, 2009, 2020a). Dette unikke perspektiv er blevet fremstillet som ”universelt” (Hammel 2020a), og de teorier og modeller, det underbygger, præsenteres internationalt som om de var ”korrekte”.
Kritikere har imidlertid bestridt antagelsen om teoretiske perspektivers universalisme og påpeget, at de toneangivende teorier i ergoterapien afspejler unikke perspektiver, der deles af privilegerede eliter (Hammell, 2009; Iwama, 2006). Problemet er ikke forestillingen om universalisme i sig selv eller antagelsen om, at mennesker deler grundlæggende værdier. Problemet er, at det, som faktisk er et eurocentrisk hegemoni, fremstår som universalisme (Appiah, 1992) og derfor gennemtvinger bestemte værdier og perspektiver, mens andre værdier og perspektiver skjules og fremstår som uvæsentlige.
Antagelser som er indlejret i vores teoretiske status quo
De toneangivende ergoterapeutiske teorier har påvirket forestillinger i ergoterapien om, hvilke aktiviteter man ”bør” være engageret i - egenomsorg (self-care), arbejde (at være og blive produktiv) og engagement i fritidsaktiviteter, der har et element af selvrealisering. Disse kategorier bygger ikke på empirisk evidens; faktisk er der betydelig evidens for, at disse restriktive kategorier hverken er tilstrækkelige eller valide (Hammell, 2020a). De teorier, der har lært studerende, at egenomsorg, produktivitet og selvrealiserende fritidsaktiviteter er vores ”aktivitetsformål” (Townsend & Polatajko, 2013, s. 23), kommer også til kort i forhold til at adressere kritikken om, at produktivitet ”nødvendigvis indgår i en ableistisk diskurs” (Devlin & Pothier, 2006, s.18).
Ved udelukkende at fokusere på de tre aktivitetskategorier, der anses for væsentlige af minoritetsforskere, har ergoterapien sløret, overset og devalueret andre aktivitetskategorier, som servicebrugerne anser for væsentlige, herunder aktiviteter, der styrker relationer til familie, lokalsamfund, forfædre og kulturer; aktiviteter, der fokuserer på at styrke ressourcesøgning og overlevelse; aktiviteter, der har til formål at styrke håb eller kreativitet; aktiviteter, der vælges for at styrke kønsidentitet; eller aktiviteter, der tjener til at markere modstand mod noget (Hammell, 2020a).
Desuden har vores profession ikke formået at forklare prioritering blandt mennesker, som engagerer sig i delte, kollektive eller kooperative aktiviteter, fordi disse aktiviteter skaber mulighed for at skabe gensidig afhængighed (Asaba, 2008; Iwama, 2006): aktiviteter, der gennemføres for at bidrage til andres velvære; påkalde gensidig forståelse; berige relationer; styrke sociale roller og leve op til ansvar for og forpligtelser i forhold til andre (Hammell, 2020a). Endvidere har man kun i begrænset omfang fokuseret på bredere problemstillinger som klima- og miljøkrisens indvirkning på engagement i forskellige aktiviteter, sundhed og velfærd (Hammell, 2021).
Ergoterapeutiske teorier har fokuseret på uafhængighed, autonomi og forestillingen om, at alle mennesker kan tage aktivitetssrelaterede beslutninger på et ”oplyst og velovervejet grundlag” (Wilcock & Hocking, 2015, s.429). Dette er i tråd med den allestedsnærværende og toneangivende sociopolitiske myte om meritokrati, der fremstiller succes (i forhold til brugernes aktiviteter) som resultatet af individuelle færdigheder, målrettethed og indsats. Eftersom denne ideologi overser de sociale faktorer, der begrænser deltagelse i aktiviteter, placeres ansvaret for begrænsninger i handikappede menneskers deltagelse i aktiviteter hos dem selv (Hammell, 2020b).
Fejlbehæftede praksisser der bygger på fejlbehæftede teorier
Kritisk analyse har afsløret blinde vinkler i ergoterapiteorier, der er præget af hvide fra det globale nord, der har skjult ulighed, herunder racisme, kønsdiskrimination og kønsbinarisme og disses indvirkning på valg af og deltagelse i aktiviteter (Hammell, 2020b).
Ableisme er en ideologi, der anser typiske eller almindeligt forekommende kroppe, sind eller evner for at være overlegne, og som karakteriserer mennesker med enhver funktionsnedsættelse som mangelfulde og mindreværdige (Campbell, 2008). Disse teorier, som er blevet påtvunget det globale syd på samme måde som kolonielle praksisser, har skævvredet grundlaget for ergoterapien og efterladt et utilstrækkeligt grundlag for en profession, der har en forpligtelse til at fremme retten til aktivitet og deltagelse.
I tråd med ergoterapiens knæfald for den sociopolitiske status quo fokuserer man også primært på at håndtere individuelle problemer, mens man overser uretfærdighed, der er indlejret i det omgivende miljø. Eksempelvis har ergoterapeuter, som arbejder for at få flere racialiserede mennesker med rygmarvsskade i arbejde, ofte afgrænset deres fokus til individuel adfærd og individuelle evner og dermed overset de ableistiske og racistiske barrierer, der afholder denne gruppe fra at opnå beskæftigelse, herunder diskrimination i form af diskriminerende transportmuligheder og ulige beskæftigelsesmuligheder.
Ved at fokusere på individuel adfærd overses også veletablerede uligheder mellem hvide og etniske minoriteter, som består, selv efter at der er opnået lighed på uddannelseslængde (Krause et al., 2010). Tilsvarende overses den betydelige ulighed i indtægtsniveau mellem de hvide handikappede og de farvede handikappede, som opnår beskæftigelse (Krause et al., 2010).
"I tråd med ergoterapiens knæfald for den sociopolitiske status quo fokuserer man også primært på at håndtere individuelle problemer, mens man overser uretfærdighed, der er indlejret i det omgivende miljø.
Det er indlysende, at ergoterapeuter, som fastholder et ensidigt fokus på individniveau-ændringer, bærer et medansvar for at opretholde disse former for diskrimination og for at forevige de aktivitetsmæssige fordele, som tilfalder sunde og raske hvide mennesker.
Systemisk uretfærdighed er fasttømrede strukturer eller systemer i form af politikker og praksisser, som fastholder ulighed i alle livets aspekter. Systemisk uretfærdighed determinerer, hvad der er af livs- og valgmuligheder og fastholder dermed de fordele og muligheder, som hvide, sunde og raske, heteronormative mennesker har i sig selv. Denne uretfærdighed har rødder i kolonialismen, hvor hierarkiske klassifikationssystemer blev etableret for at positionere hvide mennesker over alle andre og påtvinge os alle en binær kønsopfattelse, der positionerer mænd som overlegne i forhold til kvinder og fastholder ideen om heteronormativitet (Lugones, 2007; Pihama, 2019).
Disse socialt konstruerede hierarkier var udtænkt for at muliggøre og retfærdiggøre ulighed i kolonitiden og få uretfærdighed til at fremstå som noget ”naturligt”. I dag tjener de til at fastholde og genskabe ideologier, der bygger på over- og underlegenhed og til at forevige de ufortjente fordele, som tilfalder sunde og raske hvide mennesker (især mænd), der tilhører de privilegerede socioøkonomiske klasser.
Det er afgørende, at ergoterapeuter anerkender ovenstående, eftersom racisme, ableisme, kønsdiskrimination og -binarisme er forbundne og overlappende størrelser, der hver især er med til at fastholde en bestemt forståelse af, hvad en normal og ønskværdig krop er; og som hver især fastholder, at de uretfærdige fordele og privilegier, som tilfalder de, der er sunde og raske hvide ciskønnede mænd er ”naturlige”; og som hver især begrænser aktivitetsmuligheder og -valg for alle de mennesker, som ikke passer på disse konstruerede normer (Hammell, 2020b, 2023).
Aktivitetsmuligheder og -valg er socialt determinerede størrelser. Evidensbaseret forskning viser, at racisme, kønsdiskrimination, ulighed baseret på klasse- og kastetilhørsforhold, patriarkisme, kvindehad, ableisme og disableisme, heteronormativitet og kønsbinarisme - som alle er veldokumenterede determinanter af sundhed og velvære - også determinerer engagement i aktiviteter (Hammell, 2020a; 2020b).
Ableistiske samfund diskriminerer til fordel for den dominante befolkning ved at sørge for, at mennesker med handikap ikke har adgang til de samme fordele som deres sunde og raske medborgere (Robertson, 2016). Alligevel har der i ergoterapeutisk teoridannelse kun været udvist begrænset interesse for at fokusere på og udfordre, hvordan ableisme og disablisme giver form til, begrænser og krænker handikappede menneskers aktivitetsmæssige muligheder og rettigheder.
Faktisk synliggør de aktivitetsmæssige uretfærdigheder nogle af de ”hvide løgne”, der findes i ergoterapeutisk teori; herunder at aktivitetsmæssige muligheder afhænger af individets vilje og evne, og at alle mennesker kan vælge deres daglige aktiviteter (Hammell, 2020b). I modsætning hertil viser forskningen, at ”den kontekst, i hvilken al menneskelig aktivitet udvikles, udgør et vilkår, som begrænser valg- og handlemuligheder” (Ottersen et al., 2014, s. 635).
Vi skal leve op til ergoterapiens fordringer
Den internationale ergoterapeutforening, World Federation of Occupational Therapists (WFOT, 2019), understreger, at enhver ergoterapeut er forpligtet til at modarbejde systemisk diskrimination og uretfærdighed i form af eksempelvis racisme og til at fremme aktivitetsrelaterede rettigheder.
Hvis vi skal honorere disse fordringer, kræver det helt grundlæggende ændringer i vores profession, som indtil nu kun har udvist begrænset interesse i at forstå, hvordan systemisk uretfærdighed giver form og retning til ergoterapien.
Filosoffer indikerer, at i fraværet af kritisk tænkning antager individet uundgåeligt og ubevidst ideer og praksisser, der kendetegner og styrker status quo (Shaull, 1993). Ergoterapien kan kun udvikle sig til en profession, som fremmer aktivitetsrelaterede rettigheder, hvis vi kritisk udfordrer status quo, adskiller professionens teorier fra deres dybe rødder i kolonitiden og nægter at individualisere problemer, der skyldes systemisk uretfærdighed.
Karen Whalley Hammell
Ergoterapeut, ph.d. og æresprofessor
British Columbia Universitet i Vancouver, Canada
Referencer
Appiah, K.A. (1992) In my father’s house: Africa in the philosophy of culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Asaba, E. (2008) Hashi-ire: Where occupation, chopsticks, and mental health intersect. Journal of Occupational Science, 15, 74-79.
Campbell, F.A.K. (2008) Exploring internalized ableism using critical race theory. Disability and Society, 23(2):151-162.
Devlin, R., & Pothier, D. (2006) Introduction: Toward a critical theory of dis-citizenship. In D. Pothier, & R. Devlin. (Eds.). Critical disability theory: essays in philosophy, politics, policy, and law, (pp.1-22.), Vancouver: UBC Press.
Hammell, K.W. (2009) Self-care, productivity and leisure, or dimensions of occupational experience? Rethinking occupational “categories”. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76(2),107-114. doi:10.1177/000841740907600208
Hammell, K.W. (2019) Building globally relevant occupational therapy from the strength of our diversity. World Federation of Occupational Therapists’ Bulletin, 75(1),13-26. doi:10.1080/14473828.2018.1529480
Hammell, K.W. (2020a) Engagement in living: Critical perspectives on occupation, rights and wellbeing. Ottawa, ONT: CAOT Publications ACE.
Hammell, K.W. (2020b) Making Choices from the Choices we have: The Contextual-Embeddedness of Occupational Choice. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 87(5),400-411. doi:10.1177/000841742096574
Hammell, K.W. (2021) Occupation in Natural Environments; Health Equity and Environmental Justice. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2021;88(4),319-328. doi:10.1177/00084174211040000
Hammell, K.W. (2023) A call to resist occupational therapy’s promotion of ableism. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(6),745-757. doi:10.1080/11038128.2022.2130821
Iwama, M.K. (2006) The Kawa model: Culturally relevant occupational therapy. Edinburgh:
Elsevier.
Krause, J.S., Saunders, L., & Staten, D. (2010). Race-ethnicity, education, and employment after spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 53, 78-86. doi:10.1177/0034355209345161
Lugones, M. (2007) Heterosexualism and the colonial/modern gender system. Hypatia, 2(1),186-209. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2007.tb01156.x
Ottersen, O.P., Dasgupta, J., Bloiun, C., Buss, P., Chongsuvivatwong, V., Frenk, J, et al. (2014) The Lancet-Univeristy of Oslo Commission on global governance for health. The political origins of health inequity: prospects for change. Lancet, 383, 630-667. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62407-1
Pihama, L. (2019) Colonization and the importation of ideologies of race, gender, and class in Aotearoa. In, E.A. McKinley & L.T. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of Indigenous Education. (pp. 1-20). Singapore: Springer Nature.
Robertson, J. (2016). Exploring the conceptualization of disability and demographics as “facts”. In, J. Robertson & G. Larson, (Eds.), Disability and social change: A progressive Canadian approach, (pp.45-64), Halifax: Fernwood.
Shaull, R. (1993) Foreword. In P. Freire, Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Townsend, E.A., & Polatajko, H. (2013) Enabling occupation II: advancing an occupational therapy vision for health, well-being & justice through occupation, 2nd edn. Ottawa, ONT: CAOT Publications ACE.
Wilcock, A.A., & Hocking. C. (2015) An occupational perspective of health. 3rd edition. Thorofare, NJ: Slack.
WFOT; World Federation of Occupational Therapists. (2019) Position Statement: Occupational therapy and human rights (revised). www.wfot.org
Read the article in English:
Based on her own position as a white, class-privileged, and cisgender woman, the Canadian occupational therapist and respected researcher Karen Whalley Hammell in this article challenges the theoretical foundation upon which the occupational therapy profession rests. Among other things, she highlights problematic assumptions about common activity categories and encourages all occupational therapists to engage in critical reflection.
Challenging occupational therapy’s theoretical status quo
Dr Karen Whalley Hammell
Occupational therapy’s theories and conceptual models encapsulate the profession’s unique body of knowledge and assumptions about occupation, and inform the organizing principles that underpin therapists’ practices (Hammell, 2019). This article aims both to highlight the imperative of challenging occupational therapy’s theoretical status quo, and to encourage a critical stance towards the adequacy of the theories promoted within the profession.
It is relevant to state my position as a white, straight, class-privileged, temporarily non-disabled, cis-female. (To be “cis-gendered” is to identify with the gender one was assigned at birth). I am aware that I derive material benefits, occupational advantages and social privileges from my white skin and able body that I have not earned. And I acknowledge that the perspectives that derive from my position and shape my ideas are inevitably blinkered, slanted and incomplete.
Theories derived from a minority viewpoint
Occupational therapy has been dominated by theories and models of practice arising in the Global North, and informed by a minority viewpoint: white, Eurocentric, Judeo-Christian, urban middle-class, heteronormative and ableist (Hammell, 2009, 2020a). This unique perspective has been presented as if “universal” (Hammell, 2020a), and the theories and models it underpins have been promoted internationally as if they are “correct”.
Critics have contested the presumed universalism of theorists’ perspectives, and drawn attention to the reality that occupational therapy’s dominant theories reflect unique perspectives shared among privileged élites (Hammell, 2009; Iwama, 2006). The problem is not the idea of universalism and the premise that humanity shares some basic values, but rather, that Eurocentric hegemony poses as universalism (Appiah, 1992); imposing a specific set of values and perspectives while simultaneously obscuring and devaluing the perspectives of others.
Assumptions embedded in the theoretical status quo
Occupational therapy’s dominant theories have influenced the profession’s ideas about the occupations in which people “ought” to be engaged – doing self-care, doing work (being and becoming productive), and doing self-fulfilling leisure. These categories did not derive from empirical evidence; indeed, a considerable body of evidence challenges the validity and adequacy of these restrictive categories (Hammell, 2020a). These theories, which have taught students that self-care, productivity and leisure constitute the “purposes” of occupation (Townsend & Polatajko, 2013, p.23), have also failed to address critiques that productivity is an “irretrievably ableist discourse” (Devlin & Pothier, 2006, p.18).
By focusing exclusively on three categories of occupation valued by minority-world theorists, occupational therapy has obscured, ignored and devalued all other occupations valued by service users, such as those that foster connections with families, communities, ancestors and cultures; resource-seeking and survival occupations, occupations undertaken to engender hope or foster creativity, occupations chosen to assert gender identities, or occupations enacted as acts of resistance (Hammell, 2020a). In addition, the profession has failed to address the priorities of people who choose to engage in shared, collective and co-operative occupations because they provide opportunities for interdependence (Asaba, 2008; Iwama, 2006); occupations undertaken to contribute to the wellbeing of others, to enact reciprocity, enrich relationships, strengthen social roles, and fulfil duties, responsibilities and obligations to others (Hammell, 2020a). Moreover, little attention has been focused on broader issues, such as the impact of environmental degradation and climate change on occupational engagement, health and wellbeing (Hammell, 2021).
Occupational therapy’s theories have promoted independence, autonomy, and the idea that people can all make “informed and wise” occupational choices (Wilcock & Hocking, 2015, p.429). This fits with the prevailing socio-political myth of meritocracy, ubiquitous in the Global North, that portrays success (e.g. in one’s occupations) as the product of individual skill, determination and effort. Because this ideology ignores the social determinants of occupation, it effectively blames disabled people for any limitations in their occupational participation (Hammell, 2020b).
Flawed practices informed by flawed theories
Critical analysis has revealed privileged blind-spots embedded in occupational therapy’s white Northern theories that have obscured inequities - such as racism, ableism, sexism, heteronormativity and gender binarism - and their impact on occupational choice and participation (Hammell, 2020b). (Ableism is an ideology that views typical - or usual - bodies, minds and abilities as superior, portrays impairments as inherently negative, and those with impairments as both flawed and inferior; Campbell, 2008). These theories - which have been imposed on the Global South, consistent with colonial practices - have provided a flawed basis for occupational therapy, and an inadequate foundation for a profession obligated to promote occupational rights (WFOT, 2019).
Congruent with the profession’s collusion with the socio-political status quo, attention has been focused primarily on addressing individual deficits and dysfunctions while overlooking the injustices of the environment. Thus, for example, occupational therapists working to improve employment outcomes for racialised people with spinal cord injury have often limited their focus to individual behaviours and abilities while discounting ableist and racist barriers to employment, such as discriminatory transportation options and inequitable work opportunities. This ignores long-standing employment disparities between white people and racial minorities even in the presence of equivalent educational attainment (Krause et al., 2010), and the substantial differences in earnings among disabled white and disabled Black people even when employment is attained (Krause et al., 2010). Clearly, focusing solely on trying to change individuals makes occupational therapists complicit in maintaining the unjust status quo of discrimination, and in perpetuating the inequitable employment advantages that accrue to white, able-bodied people.
Entrenched structures, or systems, of policies and practices that embed inequities in all aspects of life - determining the availability of life chances and choices, and preserving the unearned advantages and opportunities of white, “able”, heteronormative people – are systemic injustices. These injustices are rooted in colonialism, wherein hierarchical classificatory systems were constructed to position white people as superior to all others, and to impose binary genders that position men as superior to women while entrenching heteronormativity (Lugones, 2007; Pihama, 2019). Devised to facilitate and “justify” colonial injustices, and make inequities appear “natural”, these socially-constructed hierarchies continue to maintain and reproduce ideologies of superiority and inferiority, and to perpetuate the unearned advantages that accrue to “able” white people (and especially men) in privileged socioeconomic classes.
For occupational therapists, this is important to acknowledge, because racism, ableism, sexism and gender binarism are interlinked and intersect; each reflects an ideology that upholds certain bodies as normal and desirable; each upholds as “natural” the inequitable advantages and privileges that flow to those with white, able, cis-male bodies; each effectively limits the occupational opportunities and choices of those who do not conform to these constructed norms (Hammell, 2020b, 2023). Occupation is socially determined; evidence shows that racism, sexism, class and caste inequities, patriarchy, misogyny, ableism, disablism, heteronormativity and gender binarism – injustices that are well-documented determinants of health and wellbeing - are also determinants of occupational engagement (Hammell, 2020a; 2020b). Ableist societies discriminate in favour of the dominant population, ensuring that disabled people cannot access the same benefits as their able-bodied counterparts (Robertson, 2016). Yet occupational therapy’s theories have demonstrated little interest in foregrounding and challenging the ways in which ableism and disablism shape, constrain and violate the capabilities, and occupational opportunities and rights of disabled people.
Indeed, occupational injustices expose some “white lies” promoted within occupational therapy’s theories: that occupational engagement is a product of individual will and ability; and that all people can choose their daily occupations (Hammell, 2020b). Research demonstrates instead that “the context in which all human activity takes place presents preconditions that limit the range of choice and constrain action” (Ottersen et al., 2014, p. 635).
Meeting occupational therapy’s obligations
The World Federation of Occupational Therapists (WFOT, 2019) identified the imperative and obligation for all occupational therapists to address systemic discrimination, oppression, and injustices such as racism, and to promote occupational rights. Meeting this obligation demands the transformation of a profession that has demonstrated little interest in systemic injustices as determinants of occupation.
Philosophers contend that without critical thinking, each person unconsciously yet inevitably conforms to the ideas and practices that perpetuate the status quo (Shaull, 1993). If occupational therapy is going to evolve into a profession that promotes occupational rights, we must think critically, contest the status quo, disentangle our profession’s theories from their deep colonial roots, and refuse to individualize problems that derive from systemic injustices.
References
Appiah, K.A. (1992) In my father’s house: Africa in the philosophy of culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Asaba, E. (2008) Hashi-ire: Where occupation, chopsticks, and mental health intersect. Journal of Occupational Science, 15, 74-79.
Campbell, F.A.K. (2008) Exploring internalized ableism using critical race theory. Disability and Society, 23(2):151-162.
Devlin, R., & Pothier, D. (2006) Introduction: Toward a critical theory of dis-citizenship. In D. Pothier, & R. Devlin. (Eds.). Critical disability theory: essays in philosophy, politics, policy, and law, (pp.1-22.), Vancouver: UBC Press.
Hammell, K.W. (2009) Self-care, productivity and leisure, or dimensions of occupational experience? Rethinking occupational “categories”. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76(2),107-114. doi:10.1177/000841740907600208
Hammell, K.W. (2019) Building globally relevant occupational therapy from the strength of our diversity. World Federation of Occupational Therapists’ Bulletin, 75(1),13-26. doi:10.1080/14473828.2018.1529480
Hammell, K.W. (2020a) Engagement in living: Critical perspectives on occupation, rights and wellbeing. Ottawa, ONT: CAOT Publications ACE.
Hammell, K.W. (2020b) Making Choices from the Choices we have: The Contextual-Embeddedness of Occupational Choice. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 87(5),400-411. doi:10.1177/000841742096574
Hammell, K.W. (2021) Occupation in Natural Environments; Health Equity and Environmental Justice. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2021;88(4),319-328. doi:10.1177/00084174211040000
Hammell, K.W. (2023) A call to resist occupational therapy’s promotion of ableism. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(6),745-757. doi:10.1080/11038128.2022.2130821
Iwama, M.K. (2006) The Kawa model: Culturally relevant occupational therapy. Edinburgh:
Elsevier.
Krause, J.S., Saunders, L., & Staten, D. (2010). Race-ethnicity, education, and employment after spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 53, 78-86. doi:10.1177/0034355209345161
Lugones, M. (2007) Heterosexualism and the colonial/modern gender system. Hypatia, 2(1),186-209. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2007.tb01156.x
Ottersen, O.P., Dasgupta, J., Bloiun, C., Buss, P., Chongsuvivatwong, V., Frenk, J, et al. (2014) The Lancet-Univeristy of Oslo Commission on global governance for health. The political origins of health inequity: prospects for change. Lancet, 383, 630-667. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62407-1
Pihama, L. (2019) Colonization and the importation of ideologies of race, gender, and class in Aotearoa. In, E.A. McKinley & L.T. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of Indigenous Education. (pp. 1-20). Singapore: Springer Nature.
Robertson, J. (2016). Exploring the conceptualization of disability and demographics as “facts”. In, J. Robertson & G. Larson, (Eds.), Disability and social change: A progressive Canadian approach, (pp.45-64), Halifax: Fernwood.
Shaull, R. (1993) Foreword. In P. Freire, Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Townsend, E.A., & Polatajko, H. (2013) Enabling occupation II: advancing an occupational therapy vision for health, well-being & justice through occupation, 2nd edn. Ottawa, ONT: CAOT Publications ACE.
Wilcock, A.A., & Hocking. C. (2015) An occupational perspective of health. 3rd edition. Thorofare, NJ: Slack.
WFOT; World Federation of Occupational Therapists. (2019) Position Statement: Occupational therapy and human rights (revised). www.wfot.org